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Four major problems faced surgeons before advances in medicine: 1) Pain control was limited to opium, henbane, and mandrake with speed being the only real method, causing much suffering for patients. 2) Infection was a major killer as germ theory was unknown and instruments were not sterilized. 3) Bleeding was addressed through boiling oil, hot irons, or silken threads to tie vessels, often still leading to infection. 4) Replacing lost blood through animal or human transfusions often failed and caused dea

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